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Risk Factors, Threats And Prevention Of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) In African Countries

Abstract

 

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is a viral disease that affects the digestive, nervous and respiratory systems of all domestic and wild birds with high morbidity and mortality. It is highly contagious disease which can be fatal in humans. The avian influenza viruses (AIVs) are classified as types A, B and C with 15 subtypes of the type A. To date, all disease causing HPAI Viruses belong to H5 or H7 subtypes; and affect pigs and humans with the pigs serving as a mixing vehicle for re-assortment of the virus. The domestic ducks get infected without showing clinical signs and serve as a source of infection for domestic poultry. Outbreaks of HPAl in Europe, Asia and Turkey are reported to be associated, with the presence of wet lands and lakes where migratory birds rest. In some African countries like Nigeria, such wet lands exist with free flying wild birds and domestic ducks visiting and resting. The possible source of introduction into a country could be through importation or smuggling of infected poultry products across the borders and through migratory birds that fly through identified pathways. The status of HPAl in many African countries including Nigeria is still under investigation so that appropriate strategies / measures to prevent introduction of the disease into the country can be implemented and / or strengthened through restriction of importation of poultry and poultry products from high risk countries, effective disease surveillance, functional National Veterinary services, quarantine and community based participatory epidemiological system for HPAI surveillance and control. This article reviewed the global epidemiology and risk factors of HPAI infection in Nigeria and other African countries with emphasis on specific preventive measures that can reduce introduction of the virus into the country and the epidemiological surveillance for case detection / identification, screening and management. This review provides useful information and updates for health workers in tropical countries on the trends of AIVs and HPAI, diagnostic criteria using case definitions for both community and health facility levels and management protocols for confirmed cases as recommended by the World health Organization.

African Journal of Clinical and Experimental Microbiology Vol. 10 (2) 2009: pp.99-116

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Physico-Chemical Quality Of Drinking Water At Mushait, Aseer, South-Western Saudi Arabia

EL Al-Otaibi, MSA Zaki

 

Abstract

The physico-chemical quality study of different drinking water sources used in Khamis Mushait, southwestern, Saudi Arabia (SA) has been studied to evaluate their suitability for potable purposes. A total of 62 drinking water samples were collected
randomly from bottled, desalinated and groundwater located around the study area. The parameters determined in this study were Turbidity; Conductivity; Total solids; pH; Chlorides; Hardness; Sulphate; Ammonia; Nitrite; Nitrate; Iron; Manganese;
Copper and Zinc. Most examined parameters were higher in groundwater, followed by desalinated water except for Manganese and Zinc levels. Manganese level was highest in desalinated, followed by bottled water, while Zinc was higher in groundwater
than bottled and desalinated water. Most examined groundwater samples had the highest physico-chemical levels as compared with guideline of international and Saudi standards, followed by desalinated and lastly bottled water. Desalinated water showed the higher Manganese value more than the recommended level followed by bottled water, while all the examined water samples had Zinc content lower than the guideline values of international and Saudi standards. Strict hygienic measures should be applied to improve quality of drinking water and to avoid deleterious effect on human health. This could be achieved by working towards a proper monitoring program of drinking water supply and sources

Keywords: physico-chemical quality, Drinking Water Quality, Khamis Mushait, Saudi Arabia

African Journal of Clinical and Experimental Microbiology Vol. 10 (2) 2009: pp. 117-127

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Sexual Behaviour And Condom Use Among Nigerian Soldiers In Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria

NAA Hussain, TM Akande

 

Abstract

Background/Objective: Studies have shown that military personnel are aware and knowledgeable about HIV/AIDS and its impact on combat preparedness and efficiency. However, this knowledge did not appear to have translated to reduced risky sexual behaviours. This study, therefore aimed at determining the sexual behaviour and condom use among Nigerian Army personnel in Ilorin, Nigeria. Materials and methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study using a multistage sampling technique to select 400 participants. A pre-tested semi-structured questionnaire was administered. Results: Out of 386 respondents (response rate 96.5%) males constituted 91.2%. Two hundred and
seventy two (70.5 %) were married while 42 (15.4%) of the married did not live with their spouses. A significant proportion of the respondents (45.5%), especially those within the age of 18 to 34 years (p=0.000), those who had participated in foreign military operations (p=0.030) and those who did not live with their spouses (p=0.000) engaged in pre/extramarital sexual activities. Regular condom use among the respondents was low.
Conclusion/Recommendations: There was a high risky sexual behaviour with irregular condom use among the study population. A continuous information, education and communication on HIV/AIDS to effect safe sex behaviours and regular condom use among this population are recommended.

Keywords: Sexual, Behaviour, Condom, Nigerian, Soldiers, Ilorin

African Journal of Clinical and Experimental Microbiology Vol. 10 (2) 2009: pp. 128-135

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Assessment Of Leukocyte Esterase Dipstick Test In Diagnosis Of Childhood Urinary Tract Infection

SI Adeleke, MO Asani, EE Nwokedi

 

Abstract

This is a prospective study of urinary tract infection in 65 children (38 males and 27 females, M: F ratio 1: 0.7). Urine samples were evaluated by culture, microscopy and leukocyte esterase dipstick test. Positive urine culture, with significant bacteriuria was found in 19(29.2%). Urine microscopy for leukocyturia identified positive urine culture in 6 of the 19 samples, giving a sensitivity of 43.1%. leukocyte esterase distick test correctly identified 14 of 19 urine samples with culture proven UTI (74% sensitivity). The positive and negative predictive values were 37.1% and 87.2% respectively.
The leukocyte esterase dipstick test was found to be better than leukocyturia in detecting UTI. in conclusion, leukocyte esterase is sensitive in detecting UTI, easy to perform, requires less time and does not need a highly trained personnel for the test.

African Journal of Clinical and Experimental Microbiology Vol. 10 (1) 2009: pp. 10-14

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The Prevalence Of Trypanosome Infection In Trade Cattle, Goats And Sheep Slaughtered At The Kaduna Abattoir

OGC Ezebuiro, JN Abenga, GOC Ekejindu

 

Abstract

The prevalence of trypanosome infection in trade cattle, goats and sheep was investigated in slaughtered animals at the Kaduna Abattoir. Wet, thin, thick films, animal inoculation, haematocrit centrifugation technique and buffy coat methods were used to detect rypanosomes in the jugular blood of the animals. The packed cell volume (PCV) was also determined. A total of 300 cattle, 300 goats and 300 sheep were examined within five months (September, 1998 – January, 1999) and the prevalence rates in cattle, goats and sheep were found to be 5.00%, 4.67% and 3.33% respectively.
Mean PCV of infected cattle was 20.33% against uninfected cattle 35.08%. In goats, the PCV was 20.29%, uninfected goats 31.56%; while that of sheep was 19.40% and uninfected 32.85%. Trypanosoma vivax infection accounted for 60%, T. brucei 26.67% and T. congolense 13.33% in cattle. In goats, T. vivax infection accounted for 71.43%, T. brucei 21.43% and T. congolense 7.14%. Also T. vivax infection accounted for 70%, T. brucei 30% and T. congolense 0% in sheep. Sex did not significantly (P>0.05) affect infection rates. Although the prevalence rate of trypanosomiasis in cattle, goats and sheep appeared low compared with the previous works, natural trypanosomiasis remains economically importance in cattle, goats and sheep in Nigeria.

African Journal of Clinical and Experimental Microbiology Vol. 10 (1) 2009: pp. 15-25

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Quantitative Changes In Antibodies Against Onchocercal Native Antigens Two Months Postivermectin Treatment Of Onchocerciasis Patients

HO Osue, M Galadima, F Engelbrecht, L Odama, HI Edeghere

 

Abstract

Serum antibodies to Onchocerca volvulus native sodium duodecylsulphate slat extracted antigens and epitopes recognized by three monoclonal antibodies designated Cam8, Cam22, and Cam28 were measured using indirect (sandwich) and competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Paired serum samples (n=32) were obtained before and two months post-ivermectin treatment. Those with increases of ten percent and above (≥10%) were 16 (50%) for IgG, 13 (40.7%) for both IgG1 and IgG4. Nine (28.2%) for IgM, eight (25%) for IgG3, IgA with four (12.5%) was the least, while IgG2 was not assayed due to cross-reaction. The higher increases in IgG, IgG1 and IgG4 antibodies in
females (n=16) than males (n=16) were significant by T-test of unpaired data (P<0.05). Those without onchocercal skin disease, OSD (n=18) had a significant increase of 20.5±29.6%, with pre- and posttreatment values of 0.59±0.15 versus 0.68±0.13 for IgG antibody (P<0.05). Both IgG1 and IgG4 antibodies for those with OSD (n=14) increased by 16.0±24.8%. Only IgG4 antibody increased with the presence of palpable nodule and higher skin microfilarial density. Trend exhibited by Cam 22 and Cam 8 were similar to that of IgG and IgG4, respectively. In conclusion, while IgG1 and IgG4 were both associated with skin diseases, IgG4 assay proved more suitable for onchocerciasis drug screening.

African Journal of Clinical and Experimental Microbiology Vol. 10 (1) 2009: pp. 26-37

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Pharmacoeconomic Evaluation Of Doxycycline And Tetracycline In The Treatment Of Chlamydial Implicated Non-Gonococcal Urethritis In A Tertiary Healthcare Institution In Nigeria

A Giwa, GK Osagbemi, BO Olayinka, HB Giwa

 

Abstract

With depressing nature of economy in many countries such as Nigeria where per capita income is low, there is need for utmost consideration for cost containment measures.
Objective: The objective of this study is to conduct pharmacoeconomic evaluation of two antichlamydial indicated non-gonococcal urethritis therapeutic options and to make
recommendations for inclusion of economic evaluation of drug therapies in health policy formulations and decision making. Methods: Cost effectiveness analysis was carried out retrospectively for prescribed/dispensed antibacterials to out-patients with chlamydial implicated non-gonococcal urethritis among other infectious diseases, by examining out-patient case notes between 2005 and 2007 in Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital, Zaria Nigeria. Results : The result shows that doxycycline costs N1.33/unit of effectiveness while tetracycline costs N2.77/unit of effectiveness in the treatment of chlamydial implicated non-gonococcal urethritis. Doxycycline is therefore more cost effective than tetracycline capsules. Subjecting the costs and effectiveness to sensitivity analysis did not change this conclusion. There is statistically significant difference in the effectiveness (outcome) of doxycycline (78.8%) and tetracycline (58.7%) ( x2 =9.4; p<0.05) There is therefore association between effectiveness and therapeutic option chosen with doxycycline being a more cost-effective option. The result is significant because doxycycline is not currently included in the Essential Drug list of Nigeria. However, the result is in agreement with Zimbabwean Essential Drug list which recommended that tetracycline be replaced by doxycycline in all indications and should be used only when
doxycycline is not available2. Also doxycycline is a drug of choice for other disease like
gonorrhorea and syphilis in non-pregnant women2. It was concluded that Doxycycline 100mg bd x 1/52 is more cost effective than Tetracycline 500mg qid x 1/52
in the treatment of chlamydial implicated non-gonococcal urethritis. Adoption of economic evaluation of drug therapies in Nigeria Health policy formulation and decisions is likely to enhance overall Health System cost effectiveness.

African Journal of Clinical and Experimental Microbiology Vol. 10 (1) 2009: pp. 35-46

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Comparative Cost-Effectiveness Analysis Of Streptomycin And Ethambutol In The Treatment Of Tuberculosis In A University Teaching Hospital In Nigeria

A Giwa, GK Osagbemi, BO Olayinka, HBF Giwa

 

Abstract

Healthcare organizations, governments and individuals have been forced by prevailing circumstances of economic crisis to be increasingly oriented towards cost containment due to escalating nature of health expenditure.
Objective:
The objective of this study is to determine the comparative cost effectiveness of various antituberculous therapeutic options and to make recommendation for the adoption of costeffectiveness evaluations in National Health Policy formulation and decision-making.
Method
Retrospective cost effectiveness analysis was carried out for prescribed/dispended antibiotic to outpatients with tuberculosis among other infectious diseases in outpatients case notes between 2005 and 2007 in Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital, Zaria Nigeria.
Results
The result shows that ethambutol tablet cost N8.40/unit of effectiveness while streptomycin
injection cost N81.50/unit of effectiveness in the treatment of tuberculosis. Ethambutol tablet therefore appears to be more cost effective than streptomycin injection. Subjecting the cost and effectiveness to sensitivity analysis did not change this conclusion. Statistical analysis shows that there is a statistically significant difference in the effectiveness (outcome) of ethambutol (95%) and streptomycin injection (76.73%) (X2 =13.75; p<0.5). Therefore there is association between effectiveness and therapeutic option chosen with ethambutol tablet being a more cost effective option. The result of this study is significant because ethambutol is usually traded off for less cost-effective streptomycin in many cases even when there is no contraindication to the use of ethambutol.
CONCLUSION
Ethambutol tablet is more cost effective than streptomycin injection at their usual therapeutic doses in combination with isoniazed, rifampicin and pyrazinamide in the treatment of tuberculos at the intensive phase.

African Journal of Clinical and Experimental Microbiology Vol. 10 (1) 2009: pp. 47-55

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The Influence Of Environmental Sanitation Practices And Hygiene On The Incidence Of Diarrhoea – The Case Of Koforidua Municipality, Ghana

E Asenso-Mensah, AO Awoyemi, ENL Browne

 

Abstract

A case-control study was done using a convenience sample of 100 pairs of mothers and children (less than five years old) divided into two groups; the first group made of children with diarrhoea and their mothers (case group) and the second group made up of mothers and children who did not have diarrhoea (control).
A structured interview schedule and review of routine data were used to collect data.
Only 12.5% of children less than six months in the case group were exclusively being breastfed compared with 75% of the control group. 56% of the cases used water from unprotected wells for domestic activity while 70% of the control group used pipe- borne water. Also 24% of the case group did not cover stored water while 76% of the control group covered stored water. This demonstrated poor food and water safety.
Only 10% of cases had access to flushing water closets for human excreta disposal while the remaining 90% either used pit latrines or disposal into surrounding bushes.
It was recommended that good amenities for the disposal of refuse in the communities be
provided by the government and the delivery of pipe-borne water be made more regular to the inhabitants Further, appropriate education in simple language is to be offered by health
personnel especially at Ante-Natal Clinic and on radio stations and mothers are to be
encouraged to put into practice what they learn about the treatment and prevention of
diarrhoea.

African Journal of Clinical and Experimental Microbiology Vol. 10 (1) 2009: pp. 56-63

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INCIDENCE OF DERMATOPHYTE INFECTIONS AMONGST SOME OCCUPATIONAL AND SELECT GROUPS IN JOS

P.O. Nwadiaro

 

Abstract

Fifty-nine Agro farm workers, 265 inmates from Jos main prison, 60 hair weavers and 40 car washers were examined in Jos for dermatophyte infections. Dermatophyte isolates included Trichophyton and Microsporum species. The highest infection rate of 75% was recorded among the farm workers with toeweb infections due to T. mentagrophytes and M. canis. 25% of the other infections were from the groin region due to T. tonsurans and T. mentagrophytes. Fifty-nine percent of infection by T. mentagrophytes in prison inmates was restricted to the groin region. Other species of fungi isolated from the inmates were Trichosporon cutaneum and Aspergillus niger. Among the car washers, tinea manum, ringworm of the hand, and interdigital infections due to T.mentagrophytes were observed. There was no visible infection among either the female hair weavers or the female prison inmates.

Keywords: Dermatophytosis, T. mentagrophytes, T. tonsurans, M. canis, Tinea pedis, Tinea cruris.

(Af J Clinical & Exp Microbiology: 2003 4(2): 11-17)